|
The Box Elder Treaty is an agreement between the Northwestern Shoshone and the United States government, signed on July 30, 1863. It was adopted after a period of conflict which included the Bear River Massacre on January 29, 1863. The treaty had little effect until 1968, when the United States compensated the Northwestern band for their land claim at a rate of about 50¢ per acre. ==Background== Of the large and disparate Shoshone nation, about ten villages of people lived in the "Northwest" area and followed Chief Bear Hunter. They understood how to live in the desert and followed a pattern of seasonal migrations.〔Miller, ''Massacre at Bear River'' (2008), p. 40.〕 Incursions by the California Trail, the Oregon Trail and the Mormon pioneers created conflict between the Shoshone and the white settlers. The Shoshone attacked and killed a relatively small proportion of white immigrants—usually people who encroached far into Shoshone lands.〔Miller, ''Massacre at Bear River'' (2008), pp. 41–42. "Careful research into the peak years of overland emigration, 1840 through 1860, shows that of more than 300,000 white travelers, only 362 were killed by Indians. Very few were killed by the celebrated tribes of the Great Plains. () the vast majority of clashes and killings between natives tribes and westbound settlers occurred in the heart of the Shoshoni homelands.〕 The 3rd California Volunteers, led by Patrick Edward Connor, initiated military contact with the Shoshone around October 31, 1860, when they executed "about 14 or 15 Indians" in retaliation for a reported attack on a wagon train.〔Miller, ''Massacre at Bear River'' (2008), p. 52.〕〔Madsen, "Encounter" (1984), p. 10.〕 More were taken hostage and then killed when they did not produce Indians culpable for the wagon attack.〔Miller, ''Massacre at Bear River'' (2008), p. 53.〕 Violent conflict between the two groups continued.〔Miller, ''Massacre at Bear River'' (2008), p. 59.〕 Although the Mormon settlers generally disapproved of these actions by the U.S. military, they also became fearful of violent Indians, and executed an Indian resident of Brigham City after a dispute over payment.〔Miller, ''Massacre at Bear River'' (2008), p. 77.〕 Conditions for the Shoshone deteriorated quickly.〔Madsen, "Encounter" (1984), p. 11.〕 The U.S. military launched an attack of unprecedented size on the Indian groups.〔Miller, ''Massacre at Bear River'' (2008), p. 87.〕 On January 29, 1863, they encountered a number of Indians at Bear River. The exact intensity of the battle that followed is not fully known. The U.S. troops used howitzers, rifles, and pistols to kill several hundred Indians (including women and children), in an incident now called the Bear River Massacre.〔Miller, ''Massacre at Bear River'' (2008), pp. 102–105.〕 After the Indians were militarily defeated, the U.S. soldiers raped and violently attacked the survivors.〔Madsen, "Encounter" (1984), p. 22.〕 According to Shoshone oral histories, Chief Bear Hunters was captured and tortured before he was killed.〔Miller, ''Massacre at Bear River'' (2008), p. 106.〕 This killing had a devastating effect on the indigenous people of the Great Basin, and compelled many groups to accept treaties in 1863.〔Fleisher, ''The Bear River Massacre'' (2004), p. 66.〕〔 White settlers in the Great Basin accused the Shoshone band led by Chief Pocatello of ongoing hostility. According to one story, Pocatello had been hostile to White people since around 1860, when his father was hanged by settlers in wagon train.〔King, "Do Not Execute Chief Pocatello" (1985), pp. 240–241.〕 James Duane Doty and General Patrick Edward Connor were the lead negotiators for the United States. Pocatello was the lead negotiator for the Indian groups.〔Wilkins, ''Masking of Justice'' (1997), pp. 141–142.〕 Some of the bands who agreed to the treaty had been reduced to just a few members after the events of January.〔Miller, ''Massacre at Bear River'' (2008), pp. 124–125.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Box Elder Treaty」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|